Overview of 1916 During World War 1

Previous: 1915 - A Stalemate Ensues | World War I: 101 | Next: A Global Struggle Planning for 1916 On December 5, 1915, representatives of the Allied powers gathered at the French headquarters in Chantilly to discuss plans for the coming year. Under the nominal leadership of General Joseph Joffre, the meeting came to the conclusion that the minor fronts that had been opened in places such as Salonika and the Middle East would not be reinforced and that the focus would be on mounting coordinating offensives in Europe. The goal of these was to prevent the Central Powers from shifting troops to defeat each offensive in turn. While the Italians sought to renew their efforts along the Isonzo, the Russians, having made good their losses from the previous year, intended to advance into Poland. On the Western Front, Joffre and the new commander of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), General Sir Douglas Haig, debated strategy. While Joffre initially favored several smaller assaults, Haig desired to launch a major offensive in Flanders. After much discussion, the two decided on a combined offensive along the Somme River, with the British on the north bank and the French on the south. Though both armies had been bled in 1915, they had succeeded in raising large numbers of new troops which allowed the offensive to move forward. Most notable of these were the twenty-four New Army divisions formed under the guidance of Lord Kitchener. Comprised of volunteers, the New Army units were raised under the promise of those who joined together would serve together. As a result, many of the units were comprised of soldiers from the same towns or localities, leading to them being referred to as Chums or Pals battalions. German Plans for 1916 While Austrian Chief of Staff Count Conrad von HÃ ¶tzendorf made plans for attacking Italy through the Trentino, his German counterpart, Erich von Falkenhayn, was looking to the Western Front. Incorrectly believing that the Russians had been effectively defeated the year before at Gorlice-Tarnow, Falkenhayn decided to concentrate Germanys offensive power on knocking France out of the war with the knowledge that with the loss of their main ally, Britain would be forced to sue for peace. To do so, he sought attack the French at a vital point along line and one that they would not be able to retreat from due to issues of strategy and national pride. As a result, he intended to compel the French to commit to a battle that would bleed France white. In assessing his options, Falkenhayn selected Verdun as the target of his operation. Relatively isolated in a salient in the German lines, the French could only reach the city over one road while it was located near several German railheads. Dubbing the plan Operation Gericht (Judgment), Falkenhayn secured Kaiser Wilhelm IIs approval and began massing his troops. The Battle of Verdun A fortress town on the Meuse River, Verdun protected the plains of Champagne and the approaches to Paris. Surrounded by rings of forts and batteries, Verduns defenses had been weakened in 1915, as artillery was shifted to other sections of the line. Falkenhayn intended to launch his offensive on February 12, but it was postponed nine days due to poor weather. Alerted to the attack, the delay allowed the French to reinforce the citys defenses. Surging forward on February 21, the Germans succeeded in driving the French back. Feeding reinforcements into the battle, including General Philippe Petains Second Army, the French began to inflict heavy losses on the Germans as the attackers lost the protection of their own artillery. In March, the Germans changed tactics and assaulted the flanks of Verdun at Le Mort Homme and Cote (Hill) 304. Fighting continued to rage through April and May with Germans slowly advancing, but at a massive cost (Map). The Battle of Jutland As fighting raged at Verdun, the Kaiserliche Marine began planning efforts to break the British blockade of the North Sea. Outnumbered in battleships and battlecruisers, the commander of the High Seas Fleet, Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer, hoped to lure part of the British fleet to its doom with the goal of evening the numbers for a larger engagement at a later date. To accomplish this, Scheer intended to have Vice Admiral Franz Hippers scouting force of battlecruisers raid the English coast to draw out Vice Admiral Sir David Beattys Battlecruiser Fleet. Hipper would then retire, luring Beatty towards the High Seas Fleet which would destroy the British ships. Putting this plan into action, Scheer was unaware that British codebreakers had notified his opposite number, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, that a major operation was in the offing. As a result, Jellicoe sortied with his Grand Fleet to support Beatty. Clashing on May 31, around 2:30 PM on May 31, Beatty was roughly handled by Hipper and lost two battlecruisers. Alerted to the approach of Scheers battleships, Beatty reversed course towards Jellicoe. The resulting fight proved the only major clash between the two nations battleship fleets. Twice crossing Scheers T, Jellicoe compelled the Germans to retire. The battle concluded with confused night actions as the smaller warships met each other in the dark and the British attempted to pursue Scheer (Map). While the Germans succeeded in sinking more tonnage and inflicting higher casualties, the battle itself resulted in a strategic victory for the British. Though the public had sought a triumph similar to Trafalgar, the German efforts at Jutland failed to break the blockade or significantly reduce the Royal Navys numerical advantage in capital ships. Also, the result led to the High Seas Fleet effectively remaining in port for the remainder of the war as the Kaiserliche Marine turned its focus to submarine warfare. Previous: 1915 - A Stalemate Ensues | World War I: 101 | Next: A Global Struggle Previous: 1915 - A Stalemate Ensues | World War I: 101 | Next: A Global Struggle The Battle of the Somme As a result of the fighting at Verdun, the Allied plans for an offensive along the Somme were modified to make it a largely British operation. Moving forward with the goal of easing pressure on Verdun, the main push was to come from General Sir Henry Rawlinsons Fourth Army which was largely comprised of Territorial and New Army troops. Preceded by a seven-day bombardment and the detonation of several mines under German strong points, the offensive began at 7:30 AM on July 1. Advancing behind a creeping barrage, British troops encountered heavy German resistance as the preliminary bombardment had been largely ineffective. In all areas the British attack achieved little success or was repulsed outright. On July 1, the BEF suffered over 57,470 casualties (19,240 killed) making it the bloodiest day in the history of the British Army (Map). While the British attempted to restart their offensive, the French component had success south of the Somme. By July 11, Rawlinsons men captured the first line of German trenches. This compelled the Germans to halt their offensive at Verdun in order to reinforce the front along the Somme. For six weeks, fighting became a grinding battle of attrition. On September 15, Haig made a final attempt at a breakthrough at Flers-Courcelette. Achieving limited success, the battle saw the debut of the tank as a weapon. Haig continued to push until the battles conclusion on November 18. In over four months of fighting, the British took 420,000 casualties while the French sustained 200,000. The offensive gained around seven miles of front for the Allies and the Germans lost around 500,000 men. Victory at Verdun With the opening of fighting at the Somme, the pressure on Verdun began to wane as German troops were shifted west. The high water mark of the German advance was reached on July 12, when troops reached Fort Souville. Having held, the French commander in Verdun, General Robert Nivelle, began planning a counter-offensive to push the Germans back from the city. With the failure of his plan to take Verdun and setbacks in the East, Falkenhayn was replaced as chief of staff in August by General Paul von Hindenburg. Making heavy use of artillery barrages, Nivelle began attacking the Germans on October 24. Recapturing key forts on the citys outskirts, the French had success on most fronts. By the end of fighting on December 18, the Germans had effectively been driven back to their original lines. The fighting at Verdun cost the French 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing, and 216,000 wounded, while the Germans lost 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded. While the Allies were able to replace these losses, the Germans increasingly were not. The Battle of Verdun and the Somme became symbols of sacrifice and determination for the French and British Armies. The Italian Front in 1916 With the war raging on the Western Front, HÃ ¶tzendorf moved forward with his offensive against the Italians. Irate at Italys perceived betrayal of its Triple Alliance responsibilities, HÃ ¶tzendorf opened a punishment offensive by attacking through the mountains of the Trentino on May 15. Striking between Lake Garda and the headwaters of the River Brenta, the Austrians initially overwhelmed the defenders. Recovering, the Italians mounted a heroic defense which halted the offensive at a cost of 147,000 casualties. Despite the losses sustained in the Trentino, the overall Italian commander, Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna, pressed forward with plans for renewing attacks in the Isonzo River valley. Opening the Sixth Battle of the Isonzo in August, the Italians captured the town of Gorizia. The Seventh, Eight, and Ninth battles followed in September, October, and November but gained little ground (Map). Russian Offensives on the Eastern Front Committed to offensives in 1916 by the Chantilly conference, the Russian Stavka began preparations for attacking the Germans along the northern part of the front. Due to additional mobilization and the re-tooling of industry for war, the Russians enjoyed an advantage in both manpower and artillery. The first attacks began on March 18 in response to French appeals to relieve pressure on Verdun. Striking the Germans on either side of Lake Naroch, the Russians sought to retake the town of Vilna in Eastern Poland. Advancing on a narrow front, they made some progress before the Germans began counterattacking. After thirteen days of fighting, the Russians admitted defeat and sustaining 100,000 casualties. In the wake of the failure, the Russian Chief of Staff, General Mikhail Alekseyev convened a meeting to discuss offensive options. During the conference, the new commander of the southern front, General Aleksei Brusilov, proposed an attack against the Austrians. Approved, Brusilov carefully planned his operation and moved forward on June 4. Using new tactics, Brusilovs men attacked on a wide front overwhelmed the Austrian defenders. Seeking to take advantage of Brusilovs success, Alekseyev ordered General Alexei Evert to attack the Germans north of the Pripet Marshes. Hastily prepared, Everts offensive was easily defeated by the Germans. Pressing on, Brusilovs men enjoyed success through early September and inflicted 600,000 casualties on the Austrians and 350,000 on the Germans. Advancing sixty miles, the offensive ended due to a lack of reserves and the need to aid Romania (Map). Romanias Blunder Previously neutral, Romania was enticed to join the Allied cause by a desire to add Transylvania to its borders. Though it had had some success during the Second Balkan War, its military was small and country faced enemies on three sides. Declaring war on August 27, Romanian troops advanced into Transylvania. This was met by a counter-offensive by German and Austrian forces, as well as attacks by the Bulgarians to the south. Quickly overwhelmed, the Romanians retreated, losing Bucharest on December 5, and were forced back to Moldavia where they dug in with Russian assistance (Map). Previous: 1915 - A Stalemate Ensues | World War I: 101 | Next: A Global Struggle

The Constitution And Freedom Of The United States - 901 Words

The Constitution and Freedom The process of debating the guiding document of the new nation, provided the opportunity for 55 delegates to reflect on a national argument. The key issue of strong central government verses strong states provided the dividing line between Federalists and Anti-Federalists and would be seen as the underlying theme for many of the debates. Writing as Brutus, Robert Yates stated it succinctly, â€Å"The most important question that was ever posed to your decision, or to the decision of any people under heaven, is before you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (1787). The Anti-Federalists were concerned with maintaining freedom. The states had just fought a battle to remove themselves from the tyranny of English control. To give up significant amounts of power to a centralized entity would undermine what they had accomplished in winning their freedom. The states were individually named in the Declaration of Independence and the Treaty of Paris recognized them as â€Å"free sovereign and independent states. Several steps were taken to ensure the new federal government would not become simply a replacement for Britain as the ruler of the states. Representation The first step towards ensuring their freedom was to establish how the states would be represented in the new Federal government. Some form of elected or chosen representation was needed to ensure that the states would have a direct hand in determining the laws of the new country. The original plan proposed by VirginiaShow MoreRelatedU.S. Constitution vs. Jamaican Constitution1444 Words   |  6 Pagesconsideration, one would presume that the United States Constitution and the Constitution of Jamaica would not be similar at all. 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Utopia, which translates to Greek for â€Å"no place†, describes an idealistic form of government where money and private property do not exist. The United States Constitution, on the other hand, illustrates a balanced government and justice system that protects and gives power to the people. Both forms of government have equal gend er rights

Langston Hughes and the Harlem Renaissance Free Essays

string(74) " of slave ships blazed to the crack of the whips about his thighs†\." Longboats Hughes and the Harlem Renaissance Harlem Renaissance was undoubtedly a cultural and social-political movement for the African American race. The Renaissance was many things to people, but it is best described as a cultural movement in which the high level of black artistic cultural production, demanded and received recognition. Many African American writers, musicians, poets, and leaders were able to express their creativity in many ways in response to their social condition. We will write a custom essay sample on Langston Hughes and the Harlem Renaissance or any similar topic only for you Order Now Until the Harlem Renaissance, poetry and literature were dominated by the white people and were all about the white culture. One writer in particular, Longboats Hughes, broke through those barriers that very few African-American artists had done before this period. Longboats Hughes played a major role and was a tremendous influence on African-American culture throughout the United States during the era of the Harlem Renaissance. He has written many poems that were influenced during the Harlem Renaissance, Trumpet Player and Harlem. From my perspective these poems expressed his rhythmic style and his connection to the Harlem Renaissance. In the sass’s and early sass’s, there was an African American cultural movement hat took place in the neighborhood of Harlem, New York. It is variously known as the Harlem Renaissance, the Black Literary Renaissance, or the New Negro Movement. This movement developed at the end of World War I in 1918, blossomed in the mid to late sass’s, and faded in the mid sass’s. There were several things that contributed to the rise of this time period, after segregation was made legal in the South, it made living conditions intolerable for African-Americans. They were powerless before the law and less than human in the eyes of many whites† (Harlem Renaissance 954). This caused a great migration to the North which seemed absolutely necessary for African-Americans. There was an industrial explosion occurring in the North and it was creating a demand for labor. Many settled in northern cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, and Cleveland, but New York was the destin ation for most. This migration to the North was a huge breakthrough for African-Americans and was the beginning of the cultural movement, the Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem Renaissance was also considered as a literary movement led by the African-Americans. It was a time of African-American creativity in literature, music, dance, and art. This movement created amazing opportunities for African-Americans, they were able to pursue their hopes and dreams without being discriminated against. They persevered and finally received what they hoped and dreamed of from white society. African-Americans received better education, more employment opportunities, and were more acknowledged in the performing arts. African Americans worked not only with a new sense of confidence and purpose but also with a sense of achievement never before experienced by so many black artists in the Eng, troubled history of the peoples of African descent in North America† (Harlem Renaissance 953). During this time the black culture was becoming more popular and accepted by non-blacks. The Harlem Renaissance was important to African- Americans because it was the first ma jor step towards equality. Many African-Americans began to write during this time and began getting noticed for their writings. Some common themes represented during the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and emerging African- American folk traditions on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the lemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North† (Wisped, Harlem Renaissance). In many of the writings that I have read from the Harlem Renaissance era, they truly depicted their struggles and experiences through their writings. There were numerous famous poets that emerged from this era, Longboats Hughes was one of the most famous poets and writers of this time. His poems were mainly about his heritage and also the experiences of Africans. Hughes was a great writer with much diversity in his types of writings. His poetry was a way for us to see a picture of urban life during the Harlem Renaissance, the habits, attitudes, and feelings of his oppressed people. These poems did more than reveal the pain of poverty, it also illustrated racial pride and dignity. His main concern was the uplift of his people, whose strengths, resiliency, courage, and humor he wanted to record as part of the general American experience† (Wisped, Longboats Hughes). Hughes was not ashamed of his heritage and his main theme, â€Å"black is beautiful,† was expressed and shared to the world through his poetry. During the literary movement, music was central to the cultural movement of the Harlem Renaissance, which was a mai n feature of Hughes poetry. He had an important technical influence by his emphasis on folk, Jazz, and blues rhythms as the basis of his poetry of racial pride. Hughes used this unique style of writing because it was important to him to have the readers feel and experience what they were reading, â€Å"to recognize the covert rhetoric in lyric meaner to appreciate the overlap between emotive and discursive poetry. Rooted in song, the lyric reestablishes the ritual of human communion† (Miller 52). The poem that I felt reflected Languor’s lyrical style and expressed the struggles of his people was, â€Å"Trumpet Player†. After reading it many times quietly, aloud, and with music I was able to truly understand the meaning that was portrayed through this poem. The trumpet player in this poem was â€Å"The Negro’ who sat on the stage, playing his trumpet, and telling us his story about the past and present struggles of his life. In the first stanza where Longboats mentions â€Å"Has dark moons of weariness Beneath his eyes†, tells me that he has been through many things throughout his life ND by looking at him you can see the struggles he has faced. The line that follows gives you an insight to what he remembers and his violent past, â€Å"Where the smoldering memory of slave ships blazed to the crack of the whips about his thighs†. You read "Langston Hughes and the Harlem Renaissance" in category "Papers" After reading the first stanza you’ve learned about the trumpet player and the life that he has lived. â€Å"The Negro’ continues to play â€Å"with the trumpet at his lips, has a head of vibrant hair tamed down, Patent-leathered now, Until it gleams like Jet- Were jet a crown†. In this stanza I felt that Longboats showed the beauty of the trumpet player despite the struggles he has faced. With music playing an important role in Languor’s style of writing and in the trumpet player’s life, he expresses this in the third stanza: â€Å"The music, From the trumpet at his lips, Is honey, Mixed with liquid fire†. The music that the trumpet player plays is like â€Å"honey’ to him, it is easy and feels good, â€Å"mixed with liquid fire† meaning it is strong and powerful at the same time. Longboats goes on to explain how important the trumpet is for the trumpet player. He describes the rhythm as â€Å"ecstasy, distilled from old desire†, by using the word â€Å"ecstasy’ Longboats expresses how moving and pleasurable the music is to the rumple player. Distilled from old desire† reflects that the trumpet player has always had the desire to play, and even though his desire has aged he still has it within his soul to play. Within the fourth stanza Longboats goes deeper into detail about how deep the desire within the trumpe t player really is. â€Å"Desire, That is longing for the moon, Where the moonlight’s but a spotlight In his eyes†, I felt that in this line Longboats is telling us that the trumpet player longs for great things as high as the moon, but for him it is unreachable and will only be a spotlight in his eye. He also amperes his desire, â€Å"longing for the sea, where the sea’s a bar-glass, sucker size†; it is another way of telling us that his desires, hopes, and dreams are as big as the sea, but living the life of oppression it will only be the size of a small glass. The fifth stanza allows us to create an image in our mind what the trumpet player looks and feels as he is playing the trumpet. He is standing there with his Jacket that has a â€Å"fine one-button roll†, playing his trumpet without reading music from a page. Does not know Upon what riff the music slips†, I saw this line to be powerful, the trumpet layer plays and creates music from within his mind and soul, his gift of music is so profound it emanates right out of him without reading a single note. â€Å"Its hypodermic needle to his soul†, Longboats also describes the intense feeling he gets as he plays, almost like a drug, maybe even painful to his soul. â€Å"But softly, as the tune co mes from his throat, Trouble Mellows to a golden note†, this last stanza defines for us why the trumpet player plays. Even though he has faced oppression, a violent past, desperation, and struggle the trumpet player uses the music to mellow his soul and invert his pain to â€Å"a golden note†. Throughout this poem Longboats Hughes was able to express using his Jazz-like structure and musical flow, the struggles, past and present, that his people have faced throughout their life. Another poem that I felt truly depicted the feelings of African-Americans during the Harlem Renaissance era is, â€Å"Harlem (Dream Deferred)†. It is a poem about the dreams slaves had while being on the plantations as well as in the streets of Harlem. Throughout the poem, we are not quite sure what the dream is but we are aware of the negative effects dreams can have when they are deferred. Longboats captured me with his first line â€Å"What happens to a dream deferred? † He speaks of the African- Americans from the plantations, who have dreams but are being suppressed by oppressing forces. Racism dividing whites and blacks from any type of equality in America allowing them to have dreams but holding them back to enough to never fulfill those dreams. He continues to ask what will happen to this dream â€Å"does it dry up like a raisin in the sun†, he uses the example off raisin because they start out as a plump Juicy grape, but transform into something different once they are left out to ray. I felt that Longboats wanted us to know that his people had dreams, but the mistreatment and belief of black inferiority from the white slave masters eventually caused those dreams to shrivel up like a raisin and lose their meaning. He then asks could it â€Å"fester like a sore and then run†, meaning does the dream pick at you like a wound or sore, but if nothing is done to heal that sore, or to reach your dream, does it run away from you. Longboats gives a very descriptive image to the point you can almost feel and smell what would happen to your dream if it was deferred, â€Å"Does it tint like rotten meat†, the dream becomes so stagnate it begins to turn fowl. In the line could it â€Å"crust and sugar over like a syrupy sweet† felt that Longboats was saying that dreaming was sweet in the inside but crusted over and became harder to reach from the outside. When Longboats said â€Å"maybe it Just sags like a heavy load†, he meant these dreams started to weigh on his people’s hearts, it became a burden to have any dreams. The last question of the poem â€Å"Or does it explode? † stands out the most to me, you have a dream that you dreamed of so much that it leaves you in espalier and escapes you. Longboats Hughes wrote this poem during a time when African-Americans were enduring injustice, and feeling there was no way to reach forward. I felt he truly captured what it was like for African-Americans at that time and how they were treated. Harlem Renaissance was a time when many African-Americans depicted their struggles and experiences through writing. It was a time that brought out many great changes and it allowed African-Americans to express their culture without fear and shame. This movement changed the way African-Americans were seen by whites, and he black culture became more accepted. Many great writers came about during this time, one of which was Longboats Hughes. His poetry was a true reflection of the African-American culture and Harlem. He was influenced by the struggles presented in the Harlem Renaissance, which was expressed through his poem â€Å"Harlem (Dream Deferred). † He also emphasized how music replenished the soul through emotional connections by the use of form and language through his poem â€Å"Trumpet Player. † Longboats Hughes had a true connection to the Harlem Renaissance, he helped define he spirit of the age through his lyrical style and brilliant writings. How to cite Langston Hughes and the Harlem Renaissance, Papers

Israel Marcano Essay Example For Students

Israel Marcano Essay Buddhist Monks Aim for NirvanaBuddhism states that there is a path to happiness and the Buddha canlead you there. Buddhist monks of all different orders are trying to reachhappiness, or Nirvana. There may be some differences between the sects butthe core beliefs surround the Buddhas teachings and practices. An ordainedmonk or nun lives a special life. Some last a lifetime while others onlyfor a brief time, however both experiences are moving. Tibetan Buddhist monks take there vows for life. When becoming aBuddhist monk it is very important that you do not rush into taking yourvows. Time must be taken to fully understand the advantages anddisadvantages of becoming a Buddhist monk. Currently there are monasteriesthat allow you to live the life of a Buddhist monk for a few days, weeks ormonths in order to make the correct decision. The Tibetan tradition doesnot encourage those who take the vows to give them back and return to asecular lifestyle. As long as a monk asks permission he is able to freelyleave the order. Theravadin Buddhist countries, like Thailand, believe that every manmust have served as a monk at one point in his life. These monks arereferred to as short-term monks. The period that they are actually monksmay range from a few days to as long as a few months. This short-termservice is seen as primarily a teaching tool. Living even a short periodof time as a monk is believed to prepare the individual for life as alayman, householder and family head. Also this practice helps theindividual earn merit with his family and especially his parents. Manypeople in these countries still chose to remain a monk for their lifetime. Before making any final decisions on becoming either a short-termmonk or a lifetime monk the fundamental teachings of the Buddha must bethoroughly understood. These teachings include the Four Noble Truths, theEightfold Path, and the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment. Normally thisinvolves a number of years of study and practice with the help of ateacher. This teacher will be your guide and sponsor. With your teacheryou will learn how to live your everyday life according to the Buddhistteachings and practices. During this time you may live in a monastery tofully understand and appreciate this lifestyle. Once you have made the decision to lead a monks life, you mustapproach the abbot or his secretary for an interview. You are thenaccepted as a naga. Then are given training in the rules, daily chanting,and the ordination procedure. The length of training before ordination canbe one month or less, the abbot might expect an applicant to spend at least9 months as a layman and novice before higher ordination. During thisperiod the layman wears a white robe and learns eight precepts. Novicemonks wear the orange robes and are given ten precepts to follow along withseventy-five training rules. There are certain requirements that must bemet in order to be ordained. The novice must be at least twenty years old,free of debt, free of any government or military duties and they must havethe consent of their immediate family. The ordination ceremony uses thePali language and the novice must memorize the lines. The novice must alsomemorize the 227 rules of discipline, called the Patimokkha, that the monksfollow. Originally the Buddha did not allow woman to become nuns.ThenBuddha received many requests from woman to allow them to become nuns. Hereconsidered his position and decided to allow woman in to the order. Thefirst woman accepted as a nun was Paccabadi Gotami, the Buddhasstepmother, who was ordained by the Buddha himself. In establishing theBhikkhuni Sangha, or nuns, the Buddha added that any other ordinationsshould be held with a fully ordained bhikkhuni present as a witness. Since the time of Buddha there have always been nuns ordained intothe order. In more recent years the number of woman becoming nuns becamesmaller and smaller. There came a point were there were no longer any fullyordained nuns in the world. Without these fully ordained nuns there cannotbe any present at the ordination of new nuns, this prohibits any new nunsfrom becoming fully ordained themselves. Buddhist woman today can live inthe order as an eight or ten precept novice but can never be fullyordained. Stem Cell Research and Breast Cancer EssayA day in the life of a monk is simple and beautiful. Monks wake upwhen the temple gongs are sounded in the early hours of the morning. Afterthey wash and dress they meditate until it is light enough to go around andcollect the alms offering. When a monk goes on his rounds he acceptswhatever foods are placed in his alms bowl. He never asks for anything,accepting what is offered, standing silently, with eyes lowered, untilafter the offering is made, when he may chant a brief blessing for thedonor. When they return to their huts they can eat their meal. This meal isusually their only one for the day. Some monks eat a second meal but nomonks are allowed to eat after noon. The rest of their day is spentmeditating, reading, studying, and can sometimes include a nap. In theevening they attend the twilight ceremonial chanting. At night the monkssleeps for six sometimes four hours. Meditation is a conscious effort to change how the mind works. ThePali word for meditation is bhavana, meaning to grow or to develop. Meditation is very important because although we may want to make changesin our lives, it is not easy to have control of our thoughts and actions. Meditation develops awareness and the energy needed to change our old waysand prepare for the right path. There are many types of meditation, theBuddha taught a number of ways to meditate and particular ways to deal withspecific problems. The most common are Mindfulness or Insight Meditation,called Vipassana, and Loving-kindness Meditation, called Samatha. The Pali word Nibbana is formed of Ni and Vana. Ni is a negativearticle and vana means desire. The ultimate goal of all Buddhists is to endthe cycle of life and death, of reincarnation, by enlightenment andreaching nirvana or nibbana. Nirvana is not a place where we go; it is astate of mind and being. Nirvana can be reached here on earth as the Buddhahas. The Buddha said that Nirvana is the highest happiness. All Buddhist are living for Nirvana. The simple life facilitates theprocess. Meditations and ascetic living allow the mind to focus on its pathand state of being. The Buddha ordained woman and there were many nuns foryears, the teachings of the Buddha however prevents any future woman frombeing ordained. Buddhism may be all over the world and have differentpractices, but the Buddha is always the center and happiness is alwayseveryone ultimate goal. 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